Executive Order 9981 Desegregates U.S. Military - Truman Repudiates 170 Years of Discrimination

President Harry S. Truman signs Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948, abolishing discrimination “on the basis of race, color, religion or national origin” in the United States Armed Forces and repudiating 170 years of officially sanctioned discrimination. The order states “there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed forces without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin” and creates the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services to investigate and implement the policy. The order represents a major achievement of the post-war civil rights movement and marks one of the first times a U.S. commander in chief uses executive action to implement civil rights policy.

Truman’s decision is inspired in part by the February 12, 1946 attack on Isaac Woodard, an African American World War II veteran who was beaten and permanently blinded by South Carolina police hours after his honorable discharge while still in uniform. Issued alongside Executive Order 9980 (prohibiting discrimination in federal agencies), the military desegregation order represents a landmark victory for African American activists and civil rights leaders who had long advocated for ending military segregation. The order pits Truman against the Southern wing of his party just nine days before the Dixiecrat revolt at the Democratic National Convention.

Military leadership resists implementation. Army Chief of Staff General Omar Bradley declares “[t]he Army is not out to make any social reforms” and is forced by Truman to issue a public apology. Secretary of the Army Kenneth Royall expresses concern about adverse effects on enlistments and soldier morale; Truman forces Royall into retirement after he refuses to comply with the order. The Air Force proves most pragmatic and desegregates by 1949, while most actual enforcement is accomplished during President Eisenhower’s administration (1953-1961), including desegregation of military schools, hospitals, and bases. The last all-black units are abolished in September 1954.

The order leads to re-integration of the services during the Korean War (1950-1953) and establishes the armed forces as an important model for desegregation and equal opportunities for African Americans. While Truman’s civil rights stance triggers the Dixiecrat revolt and nearly costs him the 1948 election, Executive Order 9981 demonstrates how executive action can advance civil rights when legislative action proves impossible due to Southern Democratic obstruction. The desegregation of the military becomes one of the crowning achievements of Truman’s presidency and accelerates the broader civil rights movement by proving that integrated institutions can function effectively.